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Written by: Caroline Kim July 26, 2025 AI has grown prevalent and more competent within the short span of a few years, and has certainly found a space for itself in companies, schools, and day to day life. While AI has significantly improved productivity and has opened doors to many opportunities, it also raises some key points of concern. I see the duality in schools- AI is a great tool to ask questions and learn through, but also can pose a barrier to academic honesty. However, the specific area of concern I’d like to focus on today is in regards to AI regulation through federal policy, deepfakes, and the very legitimate threat it poses to democracy and national security. The question is how do we protect against specific concerns such as deepfakes? Deepfakes can lead to false information, fake narratives, defamation, and dishonesty. Through this blog post, I hope to spark more discussion on the topic of whether or not the federal government should put into place more policies to protect against deepfakes, and if so, what kind of policies?  Even in the 2025 presidential election, AI and deepfakes were a rather prevalent point of concern, sparking debate on how it may impact the credibility of media content. For example, AI generated content can create false videos portraying various candidates in negative or positive ways; regardless it creates space for disinformation. According to the National Conference of State Legislature, “ all 50 states, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Washington, D.C. have introduced legislation on this topic this year” with the “topic” being AI [1]. The NCLS also states that “Twenty-eight states and the Virgin Islands adopted or enacted over 75 new measures this year”, one being North Dakota’s law prohibiting individuals from utilizing AI to stalk/harass individuals [1]. In addition, the NCLS presents as of November 2024 that “lawmakers in at least 17 states enacted laws that specifically refer to online impersonation” with harmful intent [2]. I believe that these measures are both a necessary and effective way to protect American citizens, discourage harmfully intended deepfakes, and promote the integrity of individuals; much of the current legislation is in regards to explicit content, identity theft, child protection. For example, Louisiana has implemented a bill protecting against the unlawful dissemination or sale of images of another individual through AI [2].  According to Harris, Members of Congress have introduced hundreds of bills including the term artificial intelligence …fewer than 30 have been enacted as of May 2025. Of those, nearly half consisted of AI-focused provisions either in appropriations or national defense authorization legislation [3]. Some of these are framed to focus directly on AI, while others center around security and innovation. Regardless, federal involvement in regulating AI is crucial given how powerful of a tool it has become in such a short timeframe; this will promote the integrity of democracy, safety of individuals, and overall national security.  Sources:  NCLS. “Artificial Intelligence 2025 Legislation.” National Conference of State Legislatures , 24 Apr. 2025, www.ncsl.org/technology-and-communication/artificial-intelligence-2025-legislation . Accessed 26 July 2025.  NCSL. “Deceptive Audio or Visual Media (‘Deepfakes’) 2024 Legislation.” National Conference of State Legislature , 22 Nov. 2024, www.ncsl.org/technology-and-communication/deceptive-audio-or-visual-media-deepfakes-2024-legislation . Accessed 26 July 2025.  Harris, Laurie. “Regulating Artificial Intelligence: U.S. and International Approaches and Considerations for Congress | Congress.Gov | Library of Congress.” Congress.Gov , 4 June 2025, www.congress.gov/crs-product/R48555 . Accessed 26 July 2025.

Written by: Caroline Kim July 14, 2025 The scope of corporate law varies significantly, encompassing transactional practices including negotiation and contracts as well as a variety of business and legal issues. Today we’ll take a look into bankruptcy, what it is, how it is managed, and how the law works to manage it. As this is a very specific and situational matter, today’s blog will be a summary and first glance look at how filing bankruptcy and the entirety of the process functions. When a business fails, it is known as insolvency; essentially, this means that the business can not “meet its obligations to customers, creditors, and owners with its available income” (Justia). At its core, filing bankruptcy is defined by the United States Courts as helping a person by “discarding debt or making a plan to repay debts”. Bankruptcy is a significant topic to stay informed on, considering 517,308 cases of bankruptcy (both individuals and businesses) were filed in 2024, which was a 14.2% increase from 2023 (Fay). Below is a chart by Fay representing the U.S. bankruptcies from the last decade.  Once a company files for bankruptcy, business is usually managed by the jurisdiction of bankruptcy court, where a trustee is assigned to oversee the case (Justia). Bankruptcy filings are always filed in federal court, where judges determine the eligibility and determine whether or not to discharge the debt (Fay). Another key feature of bankruptcy filing is the automatic say, which pauses all legal proceedings against the debtor from moving forward. The consequences for consumers in relations with a bankrupt business ultimately varies on the nature of the relationship and business- whether the company has a consumer’s property, deposit, or owes services. Though bankruptcy can provide many benefits, it can also ensue many consequences such as preventing you from getting new lines of credit, you could lose valuable assets, and it could impact future job applications among many other consequences (Fay). There are 6 different types of bankruptcy that can be filed depending on which best suits the situation; the different types are chapter 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, and 15. Today, we will focus on the core of chapter 7, following up in the next few weeks on the remaining chapters.  Chapter 7 provides for “liquidation” of non-exempt assets to pay off debt; non-exempt assets can refer to cash, cars, homes, and more (U.S. Courts). There are a few eligibility requirements in chapter 7 such as a means test (to determine if the filing is abusive), credit counseling within 180 days of filing, and must not have had a prior bankruptcy case dismissed within 180 days. The process for chapter 7 involves petition filing involving financial schedules and tax documents, automatic stay (discussed previously in above paragraph), a meeting of the creditors where a debtor answers questions, and a trustee who administers assets and creditors. The major documents required include a list of creditors, assets, liabilities, income, and expenses; for individuals, credit counseling certificates, debt repayment plans, and more. According to the U.S. Courts, a discharge “releases individual debtors from personal liability for most debts and prevents the creditors owed those debts from taking any collection actions against the debtor”. Individual debtors receive discharge in 99 percent of chapter 7 cases, meaning very few are denied.  All in all, chapter 7 of the bankruptcy is based on liquidation bankruptcy that various groups can file for. It is one that very few are denied, and proves to have a very high discharge rate of 99 percent.  Sources: United States Courts. (2025, July 1). Bankruptcy . U.S. courts.gov . https://www.uscourts.gov/court-programs/bankruptcy   Fay, B. (2025, March 24). Bankruptcy statistics [updated for 2025] . Debt.org . https://www.debt.org/bankruptcy/statistics/   Justia. (2024, October 18). Business Bankruptcy & Consumer Rights under the law . https://www.justia.com/consumer/consumer-protection-law/bankrupt-businesses/   Fay, B. (2025b, April 25). Bankruptcy: How it works and consequences . Debt.org . https://www.debt.org/bankruptcy/   U.S. Courts. (2025, July 1). Chapter 7 - Bankruptcy Basics . United States Courts. https://www.uscourts.gov/court-programs/bankruptcy/bankruptcy-basics/chapter-7-bankruptcy-basics

Written by: Caroline Kim May 24, 2025 This week, we’ll close out discussion on an introduction to macroeconomics. In the final part of this blog trilogy, we'll cover the topic of economic policy- fiscal policy, monetary policy, and exchange rate policy. Each has unique factors that can influence the economy as a whole. I learned and studied much of the information that will follow from my past macroeconomic course I took at the University of Florida under Prof. Thomas Knight. The class was insightful, beneficial, and I hope to share some of the knowledge through this blog. We’ll start off by discussing fiscal policy: the use of the federal budget to pursue a macroeconomic objective. Fiscal policy is a joint exercise conducted by congress and the president, and it often involves taxes and government spending. To understand fiscal policy we first need to lay the groundwork on the federal budget, receipts, and outlays. The federal budge consists of receipts (taxes) and outlays (government spending). Receipts mainly comprise of personal income tax, social security tax, other payroll taxes, corporate income tax, and more; on the other hand, outlays comprise of transfer payments (support for low-income families), payment for goods/services, and interest payment on the federal budget. If these tax receipts are greater than outlays, the government is running a budget surplus, whereas the government would be running a budget deficit if the outlays are greater than the receipts. Within fiscal policy lies two variations- automatic and discretionary policy. Automatic policy refers to automatic functions such as tax receipts increasing as household income increases or spending on needs-tested programs increasing when GDP decreases. Discretionary fiscal policies require action such as reducing personal income tax or reducing capital gains tax. These policies can impact the labor market, real economy, market for loanable funds, and more.  Now, we’ll shift our discussion to the next economic policy: monetary policy. Monetary policy involves action by the federal reserve system, and has 3 tools: open market operations, reserve requirement, and discount policy. To open up this topic, we’ll first define the monetary base as the total amount of potential reserves in the banking system. Open market operations can involve open market purchases, where the government securities are bought. Here, the NY Fed pays for these purchases by raising the balance on the banks’ reserve account; this results in the monetary base growing, banks being able to make more loans, and increases in the money supply. Similarly, open market sales follow a similar procedure with outcomes such that the monetary base shrinks, and the money supply shrinks. The second monetary policy tool involves the reserve requirement (the minimum fraction of deposits that banks must hold as reserves). Resembling fiscal policy, monetary policy impacts the market for reserves, the market for money, the market for loanable funds, the real economy, and more.  Last but not least, we’ll dive into the exchange rate, which is the price of one unit of that currency, denominated in units of another currency in the foreign exchange markets. Some important terms include appreciation and depreciation. In the context of this discussion, a currency is said to have appreciated when its exchange rate rises (ex. The price of  a 1 euro rises from 1 dollar to 2 dollars); similarly, a currency is said to have depreciated when its exchange rate falls. The demand for U.S. dollars is downward sloping because as the price of a dollar rises, U.S. exports become more expensive for foreign households (who then decide they need fewer dollars); as the price of a dollar rises, currency traders will see less opportunity for earning a profit. On the other hand, the supply of U.S. dollars is upward sloping, because as the price of a dollar rises, American households and firms will find imports from abroad more affordable (to import more goods and services they must supply more dollars); as the price of a dollar rises, currency traders will be more likely to  sell the dollars that they are currently holding. The demand and supply for the U.S. dollar can be influenced by the demand by foreign households/firms, U.S. real interest rate relative to foreign interest rates, expected future exchange rate, and real GDP growth. Exchange rate policy methods include market/floating exchange rate, managed float, and pegged/fixed exchange rate, each functioning in slightly different ways.  These economic policies play a key role not only in how the U.S economy functions, but also how foreign economies can be impacted. Economic policies and economics as whole is a cornerstone to a successful society, and it is a topic I’d love to continue learning and sharing about! Sources: Professor Thomas Knight - University of Florida Spring 2025 ECO2013

Written by: Caroline Kim May 10, 2025 Today, we’ll explore part 2 of this three part series on the fundamental elements of macroeconomics. This is all information sourced from the macroeconomics class I took this past semester at college; I’ve learned so much and taken so many useful notes this semester that were referenced in the writing of this post. My hope is that you, the reader, will walk away having learned something new or interesting! The big topics we’ll cover today include GDP, aggregate demand, labor, and inflation.  GDP, gross domestic product, has been defined as the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a given period of time, typically one year. It’s key to note, however, that consumer surplus can not be accounted for in GDP as it is an intrinsic valuation. Similarly, GDP can not account for household production and underground economic opportunities. Other notable terms relevant to GDP are intermediate goods and physical capital. Intermediate goods are components of the final good (tires on a car), and are not accounted for separately since they are included in the final valuation. Physical capital are goods, like factories, that are not a component of but are used to create the final good; therefore, physical capital is included into GDP calculations. A key distinction to be made is the difference between GDP and GNP. GNP refers to gross national products that are goods produced by a country’s firms, regardless of where it is produced. On the other hand, gross domestic products are goods produced in the country, regardless of who produces it. There are two approaches to calculating GDP- the expenditure approach and the income approach.  Stemming off of our discussion on GDP, is the topic of economic growth and potential GDP. Economic growth refers to an increase in the productive capacity of the economy, which we call potential GDP. The business cycle graphically represents the way that real GDP fluctuates about potential GDP in a wave-like fashion; instances where real GDP is above the potential GDP are inflationary/expansionary periods, and instances where real GDP is below the potential GDP represent recessionary gaps. Now, how does GDP grow- by either an increase in the number of workers or an increase in worker productivity. Worker productivity can be increased through physical capital growth, human capital growth, and technological innovation.  Aggregate expenditure (AE) relates to real GDP in several ways. If real GDP is less than the equilibrium real GDP, the value of AE exceeds the value of real GDP in the economy; this results in an unexpected shrinking of firms’ inventories, which firms respond to by increasing production/employment to cause real GDP to increase back towards equilibrium real GDP. On the flip sidem if real GDP is greater than equilibrium real GDP, the value of real GDP is greater than the value of AE, resulting in an unexpected increase in firms’ inventories. This results in reduced production/employment and a real GDP decrease back towards its equilibrium point.  Our next topic involves the discussion of employment and labor; unemployment is undesirable as it results in lost income/production as well as missing/lost human capital. In this case, human capital refers to factors such as one’s education, skills and knowledge. Below is a chart showing the classifications of the labor market. The general population is the largest umbrella, which is broken down into two sectors: working age population, and not working age population. This “not working age population” refers to individuals under 16 years, incarcerated individuals, and those in long-term healthcare facilities. The “working age population” can further be broken down into two groups: the labor force and those not in the labor force. Among those in the labor force are the final two groups: those that are employed and those that are unemployed. There are three types of unemployment, cyclical (due to good/bad times), frictional (takes time to find a job), and structural (changing demand for skills such as tech innovation). Being unemployed implies that the individual does not have paid work, and has either applied to work within the past 4 weeks, is waiting to start a new job in the next 30 days, or is waiting to hear back from a former employer. It is crucial to note, however, that unemployment rates understate true joblessness in the economy because of factors such as underemployment and marginally attached workers (discourage workers).  A topic commonly discussed throughout the media involves inflation; inflation is defined as increase in the price level, sometimes measured using an annual inflation rate. Naturally, deflation is defined as a decrease in the price represented by a negative inflation rate; hyper-inflation refers to a monthly inflation rate of 50% or more. There are four general problems associated with inflation rate that are not moderate and anticipated. These are as follows: inflation redistributes income from workers to employers, inflation redistributes wealth from lenders to borrowers, inflation reduces production and employment, and inflation diverts produced resources away from producing goods and services. A term relevant to inflation is the consumer price index (CPI), which is a measure of the price level that focuses on the set of goods that are purchased each year by the average urban family of four.  These are the major topics in part two of our discussion on macroeconomics, and I hope you were able to take away something meaningful. Next week, we will wrap up this three part series on macroeconomics.  Sources: Professor Thomas Knight - University of Florida Spring 2025 ECO2013

Written by: Caroline Kim May 3, 2025 Economics is an integral part of society, the world of business, political climate, international relations, public policy. Especially with so much ongoing talk of how the economy will fluctuate due to new policy implementations, staying informed is key. We’ll conduct a multi-part series, but today, we’ll discuss the fundamental components of economics. Key terms and topics of discussion to anticipate include supply & demand, consumer & producer surplus, and price ceiling & price floor.  Economics can be described as the study of the allocation of resources given the coexistence of unlimited wants and limited resources. The first item to consider is the production possibilities frontier. This graph essentially depicts the relationship of the production between quantities of two items; points beyond the curve are unattainable, points within the curve are attainable but not productively efficient, and points along the ppf are attainable and efficient. Below in figure 1 is a graphical representation of this concept. The activity of the PPF can be related to opportunity cost, which is an equation of what must be given up over what is gained.  Arguably the most fundamental pieces of economics are the supply and demand curves. Demand can be defined as the relationship between a product/service and the quantity demanded of that same good or service. The demand curve is negatively sloped indicating that as price falls, demand increases and vice versa; this is the law of demand. A key distinction to note is that demand refers to the entire demand curve and shift of the curve itself while the quantity demanded refers to movement along the demand curve. Increased demand would cause the demand curve to shift right, and decreased demand causes the demand curve to shift leftwards. Demand shifters include income, prices of related goods, expected future price, and preferences of consumers. Supply on the other hand is the relationship between the price of a good or service and the quantity supplied of that same good or service by sellers. The supply curve is positively sloped, because as price rises, supply increases, and as price falls, supply decreases; this is the law of supply. Similar to demand, the supply refers to shifts in the entire curve whereas quantity supplied refers to movement along the supply curve. Supply shifters include the number of sellers, technology, cost of production, price of related goods, and future expected price. Market equilibrium refers to the price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are equal.  Consumer surplus measures the amount by which consumers are made better off when they buy a particular good or service; this is the difference between a consumer’s maximum willingness to pay for a good or service and the price they actually pay. Similarly, producer surplus can be defined by the amount by which firms are made better off when they sell a particular good or service. When the market is not at equilibrium, part of what would have been the producer or consumer surplus is now allocated to deadweight loss; as ar result, total surplus has dropped. Figure 2 shows consumer surplus and producer surplus at equilibrium figure 3 depicts consumer surplus, producer surplus, deadweight loss.  Price ceilings are the maximum allowable price for a good or service set by the government, and it only is effective if it is set below the equilibrium point. On the other hand, a price floor serves the purpose of setting a minimum allowable price set by the government, and it only is effective if set above the equilibrium price. These changes to the market can result in various changes in the distribution of consumer & producer surplus and deadweight loss.  Lastly, we’ll briefly explore key topics of economics starting with types of taxes: excise tax (ex. Cigarette tax) and ad valorem tax (ex. Property tax). Government taxes cause the selling price to increase by the tax amount, resulting in the price consumers pay to increase and the price sellers receive to decrease. This graphical representation of taxes can be seen in figure 4.  Exports are goods and services that are produced and sold to foreign consumers whereas imports are goods produced abroad but consumed by domestic individuals and households. This brings into discussion what is known as the world price; the world price is the prevailing international price at which domestic consumers can purchase a specific good or service, and domestic sellers can sell that good or service. Figure 5 represents how tariffs impact markets for avocados. Sources: Caroline Kim- Personal Notes/Graphs Professor Thomas Knight - University of Florida Spring 2025 ECO2013

Written by: Caroline Kim December 28, 2024 Startup bylaws are one of the ways the future of the business can be protected. While not every company has bylaws, most corporations are required to. According to Westaway, bylaws establish “clear guidelines and protocols for key decision-making processes. Bylaws serve as a roadmap that outlines the company’s vision, mission and values, which helps ensure everyone is on the same page… provide clarity on how the company should operate, how decisions should be made and how potential conflicts should be resolved.” Bylaws outline and reference the ownership that shareholders have, process of removing officers/directors when necessary, board member voting rights, appointments, job descriptions, and responsibilities of corporate directors (Mohamed). Essentially, they function as an established handbook for the company. According to Westaway, there are 3 core components of company bylaws: statues, certification of incorporation, and bylaws. Statutes essentially “govern the operation and management of  corporations”, touching on details such as management of corporate assets, rights and responsibilities, and security (Westaway). These statues set up a firm boundary for the corporation while still allowing the freedom needed to grow. Next, the certificate of incorporation is essentially a legal documentation of the corporation, which is filed with the secretary of state. This section may further detail on the shareholders rights and responsibilities. Last but not least, the bylaw section lays out the procedures set forth to govern the corporation, also incorporating an outline of the company’s values, mission, and goals (Westaway). In general, there are specific terms and positions that are detailed in most bylaws, some being corporate offices, stockholders, board of directors, committees, indemnification, records, officers, and amendments (Westaway). Having a clear set of bylaws is essential to every company as they serve as a key component in legal issues and conflicts.  Sources: Mohamed, Raees. “Incorporating Your Tech Startup: The Importance of Bylaws.” RM Warner Law , 14 Feb. 2023, rmwarnerlaw.com/blog/importance-of-bylaws-incorporating-your-tech-startup/ . Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.  Westaway. “Startup Bylaws: What They Are and How They Work.” Westaway , 1 Feb. 2024, westaway.com/faq/startup-bylaws-what-they-are-and-how-they-work/ . Accessed 25 Dec. 2024.

Written by: Caroline Kim December 21, 2024 The mere term “corporate law” has such a strong presence but can be a very complex and wide ranging term. Georgetown defines this term as follows: involves handling a wide range of legal and business issues… they counsel clients and handle transactions including negotiation, drafting, and review of contracts and other agreements. This intersection of law and financial business is where my passions lie, and where I strive to lead a career in. While corporate law is relevant to many different instances, it is notably significant in business startups setting up the company to succeed. Guidance from a corporate lawyer can be key to a company’s success by protecting the business from legal risks, building a reputation, safeguarding intellectual property, meeting obligations, staying ahead of regulatory changes, and more (Global People Strategist). Today, we’ll discuss in depth these different components and how it can influence a startup.  Corporate Law can impact startups in legal structure, intellectual property protection, compliance with regulatory requirements, funding and investment, and dispute resolution in legal challenges (Legal Eye). Choosing the correct legal structure is the first step in a startup, laying out the choices of a sole proprietorship, partnership, limited liability company, or a corporation; this initial decision can influence the growth and stability of the company, taxing, funding, and personal liability (Legal Eye). Sole proprietorship provides the least protection in terms of personal assets but can most easily set up, while partnerships have a little more protection on assets. Limited Liability Companies are the next step up as they have more flexibility and protection on personal assets. Corporations provide the highest amount of protection among these different choices, but may have more regulations and requirements such as higher taxes (Legal Eye). Intellectual property is such a key detail to protect in startups, and corporate law can set up methods to protect it through patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets. While these various methods hold a similar overall purpose, there are a few key differences worth noting, According to Legal Eye, patents limit the use and sales of a specific invention to the inventor for a set period of time; copyrights are similar to patents in that they protect such as written works and art. Trademarks are more specific to slogans and logos, allowing for a company to hold a unique representation (Legal Eye). Trade secrets are slightly more set apart from these other intellectual property protection methods as they have more to do with interaction; trade secrets protect business information such as manufacturing and customer lists to allow for competition (Legal Eye).  In the field of business, there are numerous regulations that businesses must comply with, which is another instance where corporate law can be helpful. These regulations can involve permits, employment laws, data protection, and environmental regulations. According to Legal Eye, select operations will require licenses for permits while there are general employment laws, data protection regulations, and environmental regulations that must be adhered to.  Funding and investments are crucial to a business’ growth, but along with it can come a handful of legal matters such as shareholder agreements, stock options and equity compensation, and securities regulations. According to Legal Eye, shareholder rights outline the duties and rights of shareholders such as voting rights. Stock options and equity compensations can be a significant part of startups, and understanding the arrangements fully can be much easier with a corporate lawyer on your side (Legal Eye). Last but not least, corporate lawyers work to resolve the disputes and legal challenges that may arise later on in the progression of the startup. The three main ideas to take into consideration in legal challenges are litigation, arbitration, and mediation. According to Legal Eye, litigation takes matters to court, arbitration is quicker than litigation but involves a decision-making third party, and mediation is a voluntary process by which a nonpartisan mediator helps to resolve the dispute.  Sources: Georgetown Law. “Corporate Law.” Georgetown Law , 2024, www.law.georgetown.edu/your-life-career/career-exploration-professional-development/for-jd-students/explore-legal-careers/practice-areas/corporate-law/ . Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.  ​​Global People Strategist. “Why Legal Compliance Is Crucial for Startup Success and Longevity.” Global People Strategist , 25 Sept. 2024, globalpeoplestrategist.com/the-importance-of-legal-compliance-in-startups/ . Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.  Legal Eye. “The Impact of Corporate Laws on Startups.” Legal Eye , 2024, legaleye.co.in/blog_news/the-impact-of-corporate-laws-on-startups/ . Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.  Westaway. “Startup Bylaws: What They Are and How They Work.” Westaway , 1 Feb. 2024, westaway.com/faq/startup-bylaws-what-they-are-and-how-they-work/ . Accessed 21 Dec. 2024.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 19, 2024 In continuation of this series on different cancers, we’ll cover ovarian cancer today. Ovarian cancer is estimated to be responsible for 2.1% (12,740) of all cancer deaths in 2024; it is projected to make up 1% (19,280) of all cancer diagnoses in 2024 (NIH). According to the National Cancer Institute, between 2014 and 2020, the relative 5-year survival rate was 50.9%. Mayo Clinic describes ovarian cancer as a “ growth of cells that forms in the ovaries. The cells multiply quickly and can invade and destroy healthy body tissue”.  Symptoms of ovarian cancer include abdominal bloating, weight loss, pelvic discomfort, fatigue, back pain, frequent urination, and changes in bowel movement (Mayo Clinic Staff “Ovarian Cancer.” ). There are 2 notable types of ovarian cancer: epithelial ovarian cancer, stromal tumors, and germ cell tumors (Mayo Clinic Staff “Ovarian Cancer.” ). According to Mayo Clinic, epithelial ovarian cancer is the most common, covering both serous carcinoma and mucinous carcinoma; in comparison, stromal and germ tumors are more rare. Risk factors for this cancer include but aren’t limited to older age, inherited gene changes, a family history, being overweight, endometriosis (Mayo Clinic Staff).  Cleveland Clinic describes four stages of Ovarian Cancer. Stage I covers 3 sub stages: 1A affecting one ovary/fallopian tube, 1B affecting both ovaries/fallopian tubes, and 1C affecting both ovaries/fallopian tubes and beyond. Stage II covers two sub stages: IIA covers stage 1 with the addition of the uterus and IIB covers cancer spreading to other nearby pelvic structures (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). In stage III the substage IIIA involves the spread of cancer beyond the pelvis to the abdomen/lymph nodes, IIIB involves spread beyond the pelvis/up to 2cm in size, and IIIC involves spread beyond the pelvis and beyond 2cm in size (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). According to the Cleveland Clinic, stage IV involves the most severe cases in which there is a spread of cancer to other organs such as the liver or spleen.  Diagnosis of this cancer can involve multiple steps: pelvic exams, imaging tests, blood tests, surgery, and genetic testing (Mayo Clinic Staff ). After diagnoses, treatment for Ovarian cancer could entail surgery to remove an ovary, surgery to remove both ovaries, surgery to remove the uterus, and surgeries for advanced cancer (Mayo Clinic Staff); additional treatments involve chemotherapy, “ a drug treatment that uses chemicals to kill fast-growing cells in the body, including cancer cells… injected into a vein or taken by mouth”, targeted therapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and supportive care (Mayo Clinic Staff).  Sources: NIH, National Cancer Institute. “Cancer of the Ovary - Cancer Stat Facts.” SEER , 1 Oct. 2024, seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/ovary.html . Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  Mayo Clinic Staff. “Ovarian Cancer.” Mayo Clinic , Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 9 May 2023, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ovarian-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20375941 . Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  Mayo Clinic Staff. “Ovarian Cancer.” Mayo Clinic , Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 9 May 2023, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ovarian-cancer/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20375946 . Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional. “Ovarian Cancer: Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment.” Cleveland Clinic , 9 Sept. 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4447-ovarian-cancer . Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  \

Written by: Caroline Kim October 12, 2024 Today, we’ll dive into a new series that encompasses cancer, its symptoms, treatments, and more. This week, we’ll focus specifically on breast cancer: the second most common cancer among women, second leading cause of death in women in the U.S. (CDC). The World Health Organization defines breast cancer as “  a disease in which abnormal breast cells grow out of control and form tumors. If left unchecked, the tumors can spread throughout the body and become fatal”. According to Shockney, as many as 1 in 8 (13%) women are diagnosed with breast cancer in their lifetime, and there are currently over 4 million breast cancer survivors in the United States. To put this into perspective, every 2 minutes a woman is diagnosed with breast cancer in the U.S. and approximately 42,250 women in the U.S. are expected to die from breast cancer in 2024 (Shockney). Even on a larger scale, “Breast cancer was the most common cancer in women in 157 countries out of 185 in 2022… Approximately 0.5–1% of breast cancers occur in men” (World Health Organization).  There are several different types of breast cancer: invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC), lobular breast cancer, ductal carcinoma in situ, triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), inflammatory breast cancer, and paget’s disease of the breast (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). According to Cleveland Clinic, IDC is the most common type of breast cancer in the U.S., where the cancer develops in the milk ducts and spreads to nearby breast tissue. The second most common breast cancer is lobular breast cancer, where the cancer begins in the lobules and spreads to the nearby tissue (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). Cleveland Clinic states that TNBC is less common must much more invasive and aggressive than the other types of breast cancer.  Signs and symptoms of breast cancer include a lump in the breast (often not painful), change in the shape/appearance of the breast, dimpling/redness/change in the skin, and abnormal or bloody fluid from the nipple (World Health Organization). Other symptoms stated by Mayo Clinic include a flattened nipple and a peeling/scaling of the skin. Potential causes and risk factors for breast cancer could include family history, genetics, age, sex, smoking, exposure to radiation, lifestyle, and environmental factors (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional).  Diagnosis of Breast Cancer can involve physical examinations, mammograms, ultrasounds, MRIs, a biopsy, and genetic tests (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). Treatments could include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, hormone therapy, medications, and targeted therapy (World Health Organization). Unfortunately, some of these treatment options can have serious side effects such as fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and other gastrointestinal issues (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). These various surgeries could mean a mastectomy, lumpectomy, and breast reconstruction surgery (World Health Organization). Complications from these surgeries could entail infections at the surgical site, blood clots, nerve damage, and lymphedema (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional).  Survival rates for cancer are dependent on several factors such as the invasiveness of the cancer, the stage, and the type; 5-year survival rates are much higher in individuals whose cancer is local (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). While there is not anything significant one can do to prevent breast cancer, some good rules to follow include maintaining a healthy weight/lifestyle, scheduling frequent breast cancer screenings, conducting self exams, and opting for a genetic screening (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional).  Sources: CDC. “Breast Cancer Statistics.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , 16 Sept. 2024, www.cdc.gov/breast-cancer/statistics/index.html . Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.  Shockney, Lillie D. “Breast Cancer Facts & Stats 2024 - Incidence, Age, Survival, & More.” National Breast Cancer Foundation , 1 Aug. 2024, www.nationalbreastcancer.org/breast-cancer-facts/ . Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.  World Health Organization. “Breast Cancer.” World Health Organization , 13 Mar. 2024, www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/breast-cancer . Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.  Mayo Clinic Staff. “Breast Cancer.” Mayo Clinic , Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 10 Feb. 2024, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/breast-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352470 . Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.  Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional. “Breast Cancer.” Cleveland Clinic , 9 Sept. 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/3986-breast-cancer . Accessed 10 Oct. 2024.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 5th 2024 In this week’s continuation of the psychology series, we’ll dive into Bipolar Disorder, exploring what the condition entails. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is “characterized by dramatic shifts in mood, energy, and activity levels that affect a person’s ability to carry out day-to-day tasks”. The NIMH states that in the past year, 2.8% of adults had Bipolar Disorder and that 4.4% of Americans experience the condition at some point in their lives; in children, 2.9% have bipolar disorder and was more prevalent in females. It is important to note that Bipolar Disorder can significantly disrupt day to day life and that severe impairments from the condition are not uncommon.  There are 3 types of bipolar disorder that we will discuss today: Bipolar I Disorder, Bipolar II Disorder, and Cyclothymic Disorder. Bipolar I Disorder is defined by the NIMH as manic episodes that last at least 7 days, with severe symptoms that require medical attention; depressive episodes also occur and last for at least 2 weeks. Experiencing 4 or more of these cycles within a year are characterized as “rapid cycling” (National Institute of Health). Bipolar II Disorder is described as “ a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes… hypomanic episodes are less severe than the manic episodes in bipolar I disorder” ( National Institute of Health). Last but not least is Cyclothymic Disorder in which there is a recurrence of hypomanic and depressive symptoms that are not as severe to be characterized as episodes. Other more specific types of Bipolar Disorder exist and are often caused by other medical conditions or substances. “The average age of onset is 25 years, but, more rarely, it can start as early as early childhood or as late as in your 40s or 50s” (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional).  Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder vary from manic episodes to depressive episodes. Common manic episode symptoms include but are not limited to being more energetic/active than usual, feeling overconfident, needing less sleep, being talkative, and making impulsive/poor decisions (Mayo Clinic Staff). In very severe cases, symptoms of psychosis can occur, including hallucinations and delusions (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). On the other hand, depressive episodes consist of feeling sad/hopeless, disinterest, change in eating/weight fluctuations, sleeping too much/too little, and thoughts of suicide (Mayo Clinic Staff). In mixed episodes, individuals may experience a mix of manic and depressive symptoms (negative feelings and high energy), which is described by some as the worst part of the disorder (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). The main causes of Bipolar Disorder include genetics and biological differences. Those with a sibling or parent with the condition are much more likely to develop the disorder; in addition, those with the condition appear to have a physical change in their brains (Mayo Clinic Staff). Other risk factors could include stress, anxiety, or substance abuse. A few co-occuring conditions with Bipolar Disorder could be anxiety disorders, eating disorders, ADHD, and borderline personality traits/disorders. If left untreated, Bipolar Disorder can lead to substance abuse, suicide/attempts of suicide, financial problems, poor school performance, and difficulty getting along with others (Mayo Clinic Staff).  Diagnosis of the disorder involves a physical exam, review of medical history, medical tests, and mental health evaluations ((Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). Treatment options for Bipolar Disorder include medications and psychotherapy. According to the NIMH, common medications include mood stabilizers and atypical antipsychotics as well as medications that target sleep or anxiety. Options for psychotherapy may include talk therapies, cognitive behavior therapies, and interpersonal focused therapies. These can assist with managing troubling emotions, thoughts, and behaviors; they can also help alleviate insomnia and interpersonal relations (National Institute of Health). A few other listed treatment options include Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) , Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) , and light therapy (National Institute of Health).  Sources: National Institute of Health. “Bipolar Disorder.” National Institute of Mental Health , U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/bipolar-disorder . Accessed 04 Oct. 2024.  Mayo Clinic Staff. “Bipolar Disorder.” Mayo Clinic , Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 14 Aug. 2024, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bipolar-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355955 . Accessed 04 Oct. 2024.  Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional. “Bipolar Disorder.” Cleveland Clinic , 9 Sept. 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/9294-bipolar-disorder . Accessed 04 Oct. 2024.

Written by: Caroline Kim September 21, 2024 In our last section on our neurodegenerative diseases, we’ll dive into a rather well known condition: Parkinson’s disease. This is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, affecting approximately 1 million people in the U.S. and 10 million people globally ( Parkinsongs.org ). This progressive disease causes deterioration in neurons, affecting daily life as symptoms worsen. Primary symptoms of Parkinson’s as noted by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, include tremors, muscle stiffness, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Other relevant symptoms and conditions include mental health problems, difficulty swallowing/chewing, speech changes, bladder/bowel problems, difficulty sleeping, cognitive problems, orthostatic hypotension, and fatigue (National Institute of Health. “Parkinson’s Disease.”). Some of these terms are less obvious; bradykinesia is described by the NINDS as “ ... a slowing down of spontaneous and some automatic movement”. Another one of these symptoms, orthostatic hypotension, is essentially a “sudden drop in blood pressure when a person stands up from a lying down or seated position” ( National Institute of Health. “Parkinson’s Disease.”).  The exact cause for Parkinson’s is unknown, but relevant factors include genetics and environmental factors; exposure to certain toxins and pesticides can increase one’s risk of developing Parkinson’s (Mayo Clinic Staff). Those of older age (50+) and males have a higher risk of developing this condition (Mayo Clinic Staff). Diagnosis of Parkinson’s involves evaluation of medical history, lab/diagnostic tests, and blood tests, CT scans, genetic testing, MRI’s, PET scans, spinal taps, and skin biopsies (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). While there is no cure for this disease, as is the case with many other neurodegenerative conditions, treatments exist. Treatment often entails medications or sometimes even device implants for deep brain stimulation (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). According to Cleveland Clinic, experimental treatments such as stem cell transplants, neuron-repair treatments, and gene therapies are also implemented.  Now we can take a closer look at how Parkinson’s affects the brain. While this condition affects various parts of the brain, the region known as the substantia nigra, which produces dopamine and controls purposeful movement; according to the NINDS, studies have shown that individuals with parkinsons have a loss of 60-80% of the dopamine producing cells in this region. Another significant brain impact is that “ People with PD also lose the nerve endings that produce the neurotransmitter norepinephrine—the main chemical messenger to the part of the nervous system that controls many automatic functions of the body, such as pulse and blood pressure” ( National Institute of Health. “Parkinson’s Disease.”). Other changes in the brain involve lewy bodies and mitochondrial changes. According to Mayo Clinic, clumps of protein, known as lewy bodies, are heavily associated with Parkinson’s; in addition, the alpha-synuclein found within these lewy bodies form in clumps which cells can not break down.  Sources: Parkinsongs.org . “Statistics.” Parkinson’s Foundation , www.parkinson.org/understanding-parkinsons/statistics . Accessed 21 Sept. 2024.  National Institute of Health. “Parkinson’s Disease.” National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 4 Sept. 2024, www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/parkinsons-disease . Accessed 21 Sept. 2024.  Mayo Clinic Staff. “Parkinson’s Disease.” Mayo Clinic , Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 5 Apr. 2024, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/parkinsons-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20376055 . Accessed 21 Sept. 2024.  Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional. “Parkinson’s Disease: What It Is, Causes, Symptoms & Treatment.” Cleveland Clinic , 30 Aug. 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/8525-parkinsons-disease-an-overview . Accessed 21 Sept. 2024.

Written by: Caroline Kim September 14, 2024 The topic of this week’s post will be about Neonatal Encephalopathy, which affects 2-6 per 1000 births (Russ). As defined by Molloy, NE is a “ clinical syndrome of disturbed neurologic function in the first week after birth in an infant born at or beyond 35 weeks of gestation, manifest by a subnormal level of consciousness or seizures, often accompanied by difficulty with initiating and maintaining respiration, and depression of tone and reflexes”. We’ll discuss the symptoms, causes, risks, and treatments in detail throughout today’s post.  Severity of this condition is determined upon factors such as how long the brain is without oxygen flow, how much of the brain is impacted, and how the individual’s brain recovers (National Institute of Health). In most cases, this is caused by a lack of oxygen to the brain either during pregnancy or birth but can also be caused by infection in the mother’s uterus during pregnancy, a genetic disorder, or an intraventricular hemorrhage (Riley Children’s Hospital). While this condition directly affects the brain, the condition can affect the heart, lungs, liver, and other internal organs; symptoms that show right after birth include respiratory problems, a subnormal level of consciousness, seizures, and depressed reflexes (Riley Children’s Hospital). Symptoms later on could involve being highly alert, showing low signs of energy, not eating, trouble hearing, seizures, organ failures, and slow heart rates ( Nationwide Children’s ).  Risk factors for NE include abnormally high/low blood pressure in the mother, heart problems in the baby, emergency c-sections, labor and delivery issues, and problems with the uterus (Cleveland Clinic Medical Professional). Additional risk factors as stated by the National Institute of Health include anemia in the fetus, internal bleeding by the mother or fetus, premature birth, trauma to the skull, and poor positioning of the baby during birth. Diagnosis for NE consists of blood tests, testing the umbilical cord/placenta, lumbar punctures, ultrasounds, EEGs, and MRIs. While there is no known cure for NE, treatments such as therapeutic hypothermia and supportive care are utilized; this could involve a cooling system for therapeutic hypothermia and speech/physical therapists for supportive cure ( Nationwide Children’s). According to Nationwide Children’s Hospital, NE does predispose children to higher risks of developing other neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy, ADHD, epilepsy, and developmental disorders.  Sources: Molloy, Eleanor J., et al. “Neonatal Encephalopathy and Hypoxic–Ischemic Encephalopathy: Moving from Controversy to Consensus Definitions and Subclassification.” Nature News , Nature Publishing Group, 12 Aug. 2023, www.nature.com/articles/s41390-023-02775-z#:~:text=NE%20and%20hypoxic%E2%80%93ischemic%20encephalopathy,is%20a%20subgroup%20of%20NE . Accessed 13 Sept. 2024.  Riley Children’s Hospital. “Neonatal Encephalopathy.” Riley Children’s Health , 1 Sept. 2024, www.rileychildrens.org/health-info/neonatal-encephalopathy#:~:text=Points%20to%20Remember-,Key%20Points%20to%20Remember,also%20affect%20other%20organ%20systems . Accessed 13 Sept. 2024.  Nationwide Children’s. “Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy.” Nationwide Children’s Hospital , 1 May 2022, www.nationwidechildrens.org/conditions/health-library/neonatal-hypoxic-ischemic-encephalopathy . Accessed 13 Sept. 2024.  Russ JB, Simmons R, Glass HC. Neonatal Encephalopathy: Beyond Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy. Neoreviews. 2021 Mar;22(3):e148-e162. doi: 10.1542/neo.22-3-e148. PMID: 33649088. Cleveleand Clinic Medical Professional. “What Is Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy (HIE)?” Cleveland Clinic , 1 May 2024, my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/hypoxic-ischemic-encephalopathy-hie . Accessed 13 Sept. 2024.  National Institute of Health. “Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.” National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , 19 July 2024, www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/disorders/hypoxic-ischemic-encephalopathy . Accessed 13 Sept. 2024.