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Written by: Caroline Kim December 31, 2022 This Christmas, winter storms on the east coast of the U.S. were quite powerful, causing major cancellations and delays for airlines and gatherings. However, I was surprised to see that the week following the storm and single digit temperatures would consist of temperatures in the mid fifties (degrees fahrenheit). So, how do these winter storms impact the environment and climate change on a global scale? Some criteria include reduced visibility to a ¼ of a mile, extreme wind speeds of 35 mph or higher, and lasting conditions of 3+ hours (Criteria for Winter Storm Watches/Warnings and Winter Weather Advisories). These Blizzards form through freezing temperatures, moisture for precipitation, and the rising of moist air above cold air (Center for Science Education). During these winter storms of high winds, low temperatures, snow, and ice, many plants including trees tend to die, resulting in the release of carbon dioxide (Magher). This, we know, is a leading contributor to global warming. According to Magher, these damp conditions from snow and ice can cause an increase in fungi, which may benefit or harm the rest of the ecosystem; additionally, the potential flooding that may follow snowfall can greatly impact natural ecosystem functions (Magher). Naturally, an abnormal distribution of water in the water cycle can result in stronger storms and rainfall in the future. The issue with this odd distribution of water and strong storms is that a positive feedback loop could be set into motion. According to National Geographic, “On average, winters are getting warmer and shorter, with fewer places experiencing extremely cold temperatures. However, because the warmer atmosphere holds more moisture, blizzards are more likely to occur and be more severe in places where temperatures are still cold enough for snow” (National Geographic Society). Some of this feedback and climate change can be attributed to arctic melt (a series previously posted on this blog). Sources: Criteria for Winter Storm Watches/Warnings and Winter Weather Advisories. https://www.weather.gov/media/meg/WinterStormCriteriaMEG.pdf. “Center for Science Education.” Blizzards | Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/storms/blizzards#:~:text=Winds%20pull%20cold%20air%20toward,it%20flows%20up%20a%20mountainside. Magher, Maria. “Do Blizzards Affect the Environment?” Education, 29 Sept. 2016, https://education.seattlepi.com/blizzards-affect-environment-6450.html. National Geographic Society. “Maybe It's Cold Outside.” National Geographic Society, 2022, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/maybe-its-cold-outside.

Written by: Caroline Kim December 17, 2022 In reference to the book, The World Without Us, by Alan Weisman, today’s blog is about the earth without its fundamental pieces: water, plants, and humans. What does the earth really need, what could the earth do better without, and how would these presences and absences of these pieces alter earth. Simple put, life would not be able to exist without water- no plants, animals, or humans. NASA has done the work to create visuals of what earth would look like without water: . Essentially, what would be left where water once was would be shallow land bridges between continents, oceanic ridges, and trenches (Nace). Oceans help distribute and absorb solar radiation and regulate earth’s temperatures, meaning temperatures and radiation would be extreme without water on earth (Flinn). Plants work to regulate our planet’s temperatures by absorbing billions of tons of oxygen (Kelly). “people… they’re not just taking carbon out of the land, they’re actually changing the land’s capacity to take up carbon” (Kelly). In the absence of plants, “The population of all animals would face two threats: running out of breathable air and running out of food” (Plant Departure). According to New Scientist, “herbivores would starve to death in a few weeks… if fruit and seeds remained, birds and animals that eat them would last longer… carnivores would go next” (Plant Departure). Again, we reach the same conclusion that earth would be unlivable without plants. But what would happen if humans went extinct? This is the answer Weisman answers thoroughly in his book. Weisman answers, “Without people to run pumps that divert rainfall and rising groundwater, the subways of huge sprawling cities like London and New York would flood within hours of our disappearance” (Bryce). Oil and nuclear plants would likely cause explosions and spills without supervision, which could lead to a major climate crisis (Bryce). Additionally, petroleum spills would be repurposed by plants, and former streets would soon be covered in vegetation (Bryce). According to Weisman, the absence of chemicals would result in insects, plants, and recovery of wildlife; essentially, biodiversity would thrive (Bryce). However, there isn’t definitive say whether the earth would be unlivable without humans; conversely, it may be much better off. Sources: Nace, Trevor. “NASA Reveals What Earth Would Look like If the Oceans Dried Up.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 10 Dec. 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/trevornace/2020/02/03/nasa-reveals-what-earth-would-look-like-if-the-oceans-dried-up/. Flinn, Gallagher. “What If the Oceans Disappeared?” HowStuffWorks Science, HowStuffWorks, 24 Aug. 2022, https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/what-if/what-if-oceans-disappeared.htm. Kelly, Morgan. “Without Plants, Earth Would Cook under Billions of Tons of Additional Carbon.” Princeton University, The Trustees of Princeton University, 16 Oct. 2013, https://www.princeton.edu/news/2013/10/16/without-plants-earth-would-cook-under-billions-tons-additional-carbon. “Plant Departure.” New Scientist, New Scientist, 28 June 2017, https://www.newscientist.com/lastword/mg23431311-500-plant-departure/. Bryce, Emma. “What Would Happen to Earth If Humans Went Extinct?” LiveScience, Purch, 16 Aug. 2020, https://www.livescience.com/earth-without-people.html.

Written by: Caroline Kim December 10, 2022 Current news has spiraled around the eruption of the volcano, Mauna Loa, in Hawaii after nearly 40 years. Today we’ll dive into how volcanoes form and how their eruptions such as the one in Hawaii impacts the environment in the big picture. National Geographic defines a volcano as “... an opening in the Earth's surface through which lava, volcanic ash, and gasses escape” (What is a Volcano?). These structures almost all have some fundamental features in common: earth’s crust, old layers of lava, vent, ash cloud, lava flow, magma, and a magma chamber (What is a Volcano?). The first image that comes to mind might be a big mountain with explosive lava, but there are actually a variety of volcanoes (cinder cone, shield, composite, caldera, lava dome, and submarine) (What is a Volcano?). Though these engrossing pockets of earth can be fatal and have serious detriments to life on earth, they also provide benefits such as mineral deposits, fertile soil, land creation, and geothermal energy (What is a Volcano?). Volcanoes often form from tectonic plate movement, which is why approximately ¾ of earth’s volcanoes lie in the ring of fire along the Pacific (What is a Volcano?). In terms of the type of eruption that occurs, the culprit is the viscosity of the lava as well as the gas contents that comprise the volcano. The Mauna Loa shield is not only the largest volcano on earth, but is also one of the largest single mountain masses (Britannica). This high risk volcano that began erupting this November 27, 2022 has had major basalt flows and erupted last in 1984 (Mauna Loa). Other than the danger that its eruption poses to humans and animals, there are some significant environmental impacts that volcanoes can cause. According to the USGS, “ … volcanic gas, aerosol droplets, and ash are injected into the stratosphere… falls rapidly from the stratosphere… removed within several days to week… volcanic gasses like sulfur dioxide can cause global cooling, while volcanic carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, has the potential to promote global warming” (Volcanoes Can Affect Climate). As mentioned in previous blogs here, these global impacts of climate change impact the arctic, have positive feedback, threaten biodiversity, and can contribute to resource depletion. However, there are some more immediate threats that volcanic eruptions can have on humans such as respiratory issues, power outages, infrastructure damage, reduced water quality, and crop/vegetation destruction (Zuskin). Though natural disasters such as are less predictable, quick response and preparation can minimize the hazards and consequences. Sources: “What Is a Volcano?” Forces of Nature, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/forces-nature/volcanoes.html#:~:text=Magma%20rises%20from%20the%20hot,were%20formed%20in%20this%20way. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Mauna Loa". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Nov. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/place/Mauna-Loa. Accessed 10 December 2022. “Mauna Loa.” Mauna Loa | U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/volcanoes/mauna-loa. “Volcanoes Can Affect Climate.” Volcanoes Can Affect Climate | U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/programs/VHP/volcanoes-can-affect-climate. Zuskin, Eugenija et al. “Ucinci vulkanskih erupcija na okolis i zdravlje” [Effects of volcanic eruptions on environment and health]. Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju vol. 58,4 (2007): 479-86. doi:10.2478/v10004-007-0041-3

Written by: Caroline Kim December 4, 2022 If you have a passion for plants and were also convinced to watch the netflix series Wednesday Adams, you probably took notice of the intriguing plants in the show, specifically the carnivorous plants. Whenever plants come to mind, the carnivorous ones are never the first to come to mind, but maybe that’ll change now. Today we’ll look into what carnivorous plants actually are, how they work, and of course how global climate change is impacting them. According to Britannica, these unique groups of plants are characterized as, “any plant especially adapted for capturing and digesting insects and other animals by means of ingenious pitfalls and traps” (Britannica). All around the world, there are more than 600 known species of these plants and have all evolved over time (Britannica). These fascinating plants tend to reside near swamps, damp regions, or muddy/sandy shores; they also tend to steer clear from habitats with high nitrogenous/acidic content (Britannica). Some major carnivorous plant families include the Lentibulariaceae, Droseraceae, Sarraceniaceae, Byblidaceae, and Bromeliaceae (Britannica). There are 6 basic trapping mechanisms used by these plants: adhesive, pitfall, lobster pot, pigeon trap, snap, and suction (Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms). In an adhesive trap, glands secrete a substance that has a sticky texture in order to trap its victims; on the other hand, pitfalls are when the base of the leaves form a pit to form water, in which prey slips, falls, and drowns (Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms). In lobster and pigeon style traps, insects can easily enter the plant, but may struggle to find an exit, specifically if it is light oriented (Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms. In the flare of the snap trap, when the prey brushes against the hairs of the plant, an immediate reaction allows the plant to snap shut, trapping the prey (Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms). Last but not least, a suction mechanism allows the plant to pump water, creating a vacuum that is so fast that it is difficult to even see through the naked human eye (Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms). Unfortunately, even these aren’t safe from the troubles of climate change as it appears to be the case that “A quarter of the world’s 860 known carnivorous plant species are at risk of extinction as a result of climate change and threats like land clearing and poaching” (Pope). Some of the major impacts from a study (examining 790 plants) concluded that severe weather, agriculture, aquaculture, rising temperatures, fires, droughts, disruption of land all were ways in which the plants were impacted (Pope). With more study and innovation to protect against climate change, these plants are another motivator to start promoting environmental health. Sources: Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "carnivorous plant". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Jul. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/plant/carnivorous-plant. Accessed 4 December 2022. “Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms.” Carnivorous Plant Trapping Mechanisms | ICPS, https://www.carnivorousplants.org/cp/carnivory/trapping. Pope, Kristen. “One-Fourth of Carnivorous Plant Species at Risk of Extinction, Study Finds " Yale Climate Connections.” Yale Climate Connections, 26 Oct. 2022, https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2021/02/one-fourth-of-carnivorous-plant-species-at-risk-of-extinction-study-finds/.

Written by: Caroline Kim November 26, 2022 `This week, we’ll wrap up our take on some of the major environmental orders and policies with part 3. The topics covered are the EISA, FIFRA, Noise control act, NWPA, and TSCA. The EISA (Energy Independence and Security Act) aims for greater Independences for the U.S. energy, increased production of clean renewable fuels, and increases the efficiency of vehicles/buildings. Additionally, it promotes greenhouse gas research, federal energy performance, and improves vehicle fuel economy (Summary of the Energy Independence and Security Act). The FIFRA (Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) requires all pesticides sold and distributed in the U.S. to be registered by the EPAt (Summary of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act). This contributes to preventing the use of pesticides that may have adverse effects on the environment. These “unreasonable adverse effects on the environment” are defined as “(1) any unreasonable risk to man or the environment, taking into account the economic, social, and environmental costs and benefits of the use of any pesticide, or (2) a human dietary risk from residues that result from a use of a pesticide in or on any food inconsistent with the standard under section 408 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act'' (Summary of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act). The Noise Control Act helps manage noise that may be sourced from equipment, machinery, appliances, and more. Noise Pollution has proven to cause damage to organisms in an environment, and may have significant consequences if not properly controlled. This act assists to “establish a means for effective coordination of Federal research and activities in noise control, authorize the establishment of Federal noise emission standards for products distributed in commerce, and provide information to the public respecting the noise emission and noise reduction characteristics of such products” (Summary of the Noise Control Act). The NWPA (Nuclear Waste Policy Act) “supports the use of deep geologic repositories for the safe storage and/or disposal of radioactive waste”, establishing safe geologic repository evaluations (Summary of Nuclear Waste Policy Act). This act also tasks the Department of Energy with “... directs EPA to develop standards for protection of the general environment from offsite releases of radioactive material in repositories” (Summary of Nuclear Waste Policy Act). The TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) “ provides EPA with authority to require reporting, record-keeping and testing requirements, and restrictions relating to chemical substances and/or mixtures”; some substances excluded in this act include food, drugs, cosmetics, and pesticides (Summary of Toxic Substances Control Act). Having a clear set policy and orders in place to reference as a method of managing environmental safety is important for keeping track of requirements and enforcement. These rules covered in the past 3 blogs cover many but not all of the regulations enforced, and in conjunction promote environmental health in the U.S. and beyond. Sources: “Summary of the Energy Independence and Security Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-energy-independence-and-security-act. “Summary of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-federal-insecticide-fungicide-and-rodenticide-act. “Summary of the Noise Control Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-noise-control-act. “Summary of Nuclear Waste Policy Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-nuclear-waste-policy-act. “Summary of Toxic Substances Control Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-toxic-substances-control-act.

Written by: Caroline Kim November 19, 2022 In part two of this three part series on Environmental Orders and Policies, the AEA, BEACH Act, Energy Policy Act, Chemical Safety Info/Site Security/Fuels Regulatory Relief Act, and Oil Pollution Act will be discussed. On the topic of energy, we’ll dive into the AEA (Atomic Energy Act) and Energy Policy Act. The AEA is carried out by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and U.S. Department of Energy, and monitors environmental radiation standards (Summary of the Atomic Energy Act). On the other hand, the Energy Protection Act monitors energy efficiency, renewable energy, oil and gas, coal,tribal energy, nuclear matters and security, vehicles and motor fuels including ethanol, hydrogen, electricity, energy tax incentives, hydropower and geothermal energy, and climate change technology, providing support to groups working towards technology that decreases emissions (Summary of the Energy Policy Act). In regards to the policies related to pollution, we’ll explore the Beach Act, Chemical Safety Info/Site Security/Fuels Regulatory Relief Act, and Oil Pollution Act. The Beach (Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health) Act protects against disease that may be in contact with people utilizing that nation's coastal recreation waters (Summary of The Beach Act). They support microbiological testing to maintain coastal recreational waters/Great Lakes, implementing programs to notify the public of the potential exposure to disease-causing microorganisms that may be present in waters. The Chemical Safety act outlines plans for reporting information in regards to the Clean Air Act and is mostly concerned with “flammable fuels and public access to offsite consequence analysis” (Summary of the Chemical Safety Information, Site Security and Fuels Regulatory Relief Act). Lastly, the Oil Pollution Act is constantly working to regulate and improve response systems for oil spills; for example, trust funds are set up in case intervention for clean ups are necessary (Summary of the Oil Pollution Act). Additionally, regulations are set in place for above ground storage facilities as well as oil tankers (Summary of the Oil Pollution Act). Sources: “Summary of the Atomic Energy Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-atomic-energy-act. “Summary of the Energy Policy Act .” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-energy-policy-act. “Summary of The Beach Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-beach-act. “Summary of the Chemical Safety Information, Site Security and Fuels Regulatory Relief Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-chemical-safety-information-site-security-and-fuels-regulatory-relief-act. “Summary of the Oil Pollution Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-oil-pollution-act.

Written by: Caroline Kim November 12, 2022 Research and other environmental studies are areas of high interest for me; but I also believe in policy that ensues the conclusions drawn from such studies. This ensures that the research done holds purpose and allows for meaningful change in the world. Though there is still plenty of room for improvement within out environmental policy system, some significant acts and executive orders exist that help promote global and environmental health. We’ll cover an array of acts and policies in this series; today, we’ll dive into the CAA, CERCLA, MPRSA, NEPA, and RCRA). The Clean Air Act (CAA) holds the exact purpose of its name: combat air pollution. Essentially, this act “... regulates air emissions from stationary and mobile sources… establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards” (Summary of the Clean Air Act). Enforcing these standards and requirements allows not only for environmental safety, but also protects the safety of people through investigations and inspections. The act has been amended over time to set new requirements in order to meet the expectations of NAAQS. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund) “provides a Federal "Superfund" to clean up uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous-waste sites… accidents, spills, and other emergency releases of pollutants…” (Summary of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund). This act allows for a response system in case of emergency spills or leaks that need immediate attention; it is crucial and necessary for emergency situations such as oil spills or factory accidents. The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) serves to control the dumping of material into oceans. Essentially, it limits transportation of material for dumping and limits dumping by U.S. flagged vessels or from the outside into U.S. territorial seas (Summary of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act). This act both protects against ocean pollution and fosters the safety of marine life. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), ensures the consideration of environmental health by the federal government, providing ecological recognition (Summary of the National Environmental Policy Act). “NEPA requirements are invoked when airports, buildings, military complexes, highways, parkland purchases, and other federal activities are proposed” (Summary of the National Environmental Policy Act). It was one of the first ever federal environmental acts, and is a foundation for numerous other environmental safety acts. Lastly for this week, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) allows the EPA power to manage the “... generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste”(Summary of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act). An example of implementation might include underground petroleum tanks and which was amended into the act in 1986 (Summary of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act). In the following weeks, we’ll explore more executive orders and acts that protect our environmental health, but it is clear that they all function together as a whole, promoting the progression of environmental awareness. Sources: EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/laws-and-executive-orders. “Summary of the Clean Air Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act. “Summary of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund).” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-comprehensive-environmental-response-compensation-and-liability-act. “Summary of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-marine-protection-research-and-sanctuaries-act. “Summary of the National Environmental Policy Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-national-environmental-policy-act. “Summary of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-resource-conservation-and-recovery-act. “Environmental Law: A Beginner's Guide: Federal Laws.” Research Guides, https://guides.loc.gov/environmental-law/federal-laws.

Written by: Caroline Kim November 6, 2022 Some of nature's most beautiful places are so unique and admirable, but how are some of these phenomena formed? Today we’ll look into formations of auroras, canyons, and waterfalls. Some of these might be on your bucket list of places to visit! By now you’ve probably heard of the phenomenon called the Northern Lights or Aurora. I’m sure it’s made it across many people’s bucket lists and pinterest feeds. But how does this beauty occur? Today we’ll talk about the formation and science behind nature's colorful sky lights. Essentially, these auroras occur from the collision of charged particles with the gasses in earth’s upper atmosphere (Canadian Space Agency). Earth’s magnetic poles allow for these particles to interact and create the auroras at earth’s poles (Canadian Space Agency). Different colors in auroras can be attributed to the various gasses in the earth’s atmosphere. For example, red is due to oxygen at high altitudes, green-yellow due to oxygen at low altitudes, reddish/bluish on the edges are due to nitrogen, and blue/purple are due to hydrogen and helium (Boudreau). Next up are canyons: The Grand Canyon, Antelope Canyon, Taroko Gorge, Todra Gorge. “... narrow valleys with steep sides… the movement of rivers, the process of weathering and erosion, and tectonic activity create canyons” (Rutledge). The river canyons create a narrow channel from pressure and carry sediment downstream; some examples include the grand canyon and antelope canyon (Rutledge). Water, freezing, and expansion all contribute to weathering, which erodes rocks, creating canyons; the very narrow canyons (slot canyons) occur when this weathering process takes place on soft rock (Rutledge). On the other hand, hard rock canyons create an open end known as box canyons (Rutledge). Tectonic plate movement, simply put, causes shifts in earth’s crust, causing various elevations and changes in landscape, one outcome being canyons (Rutledge). “By studying the exposed layers of rock in a canyon wall, experts can learn about how the climate changed, what kind of organisms were alive at certain times, and perhaps even how the canyon may change in the future” (Rutledge). Last but not least are waterfalls/cascades: a body of water's steep fall over a rocky ledge into a plunge pool below (Waterfall). These form when water moves from an area of soft to hard rock, causing the soft rock to erode while it falls over the hard rock (Waterfall). As it carries sediment and reaches an area of hard rock, a waterfall forms when only hard rock remains: granite formations form cliffs (Waterfall). “An earthquake, landslide, glacier, or volcano may also disrupt stream beds and help create waterfalls” (Waterfalls). These waterfalls are said to help hydrologists and geologists determine fall lines and rock structure. One that I have visited is the Niagara Falls, a popular attraction and another piece of nature that makes us appreciate nature! (PHOTOGRAPH BY DAVE BROSHA, MYSHOT) (PHOTOGRAPH BY SUZI PRATT, MYSHOT) (PHOTOGRAPH BY WALTER MEAYERS EDWARDS) Sources: Canadian Space Agency. “What Are the Northern Lights?” Canadian Space Agency, / Gouvernement Du Canada, 27 Sept. 2022, https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronomy/northern-lights/what-are-northern-lights.asp. Boudreau, Dianne, and Melissa McDaniel. “Aurora.” National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/aurora. Rutledge, Kim, and Melissa McDaniel. “Canyon.” National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/canyon. “Waterfall.” Edited by Jeannie Evers, National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/waterfall.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 29, 2022 Today, we’ll dive into the article “Epiphyte response to drought and experimental warming in an Andean cloud forest” by Miles R. Silman and Joshua M. Rapp. Epiphytes are a unique way in which plants grow on another plant, are not parasitic, and have no contact to the ground (Petruzzello). Due to their unique nature, most grow in tropical ecosystems that provide plenty of moisture, nutrients, and sunlight (Petruzzello). Tropical Montane Forests (cloud forests) pair well with epiphytes due to the nutrients cycling and nurturing of biodiversity; in fact, “epiphytes are considered indicator species in cloud forests for changing water balance conditions” (Rapp). With that in mind, in these cloud forest regions, atmospheric conditions are expected to change with climate change, but are harder to predict. A concern for these cloud conditions include elevated base height of clouds, which has had detrimental effects in Costa Rica, where there was a much higher leaf mortality; this can’t quite be generalized to the Andes though, which may have higher resistance due to being in more variable conditions instead of a more localized cloud forest (Rapp). The two research questions considered by Rapp and Silman were the resulting demographic changes from being moved from their normal elevation and is this effect more definitive in down-slope/warmer/drier conditions (such as Costa Rica) (Rapp). Specific data and procedures for the experiment is detailed in the article (link on the home page). After concluding the experiment, the researchers discovered that “... warmer temperatures and lower cloud immersion will cause community-level changes for species currently above the cloud base” (Rapp). Additionally they discovered how regionally, the plant responses differed: “The response to transplanting was strongest in those transplanted from the highest elevation, which is coolest and has the highest degree of cloud immersion. Epiphytes from lower elevations only benefitted slightly from increased water availability and cooler temperatures, possibly indicating they are better adapted to withstand heat and drought stress” (Rapp). Surprisingly, there was a decent resistance to transplant-induced moisture stress due to competing factors of sufficient rainfall and tolerance from varying conditions (Rapp). The researchers concluded that dry seasons may in fact be beneficial for building up tolerance in epiphytes. They do mention that it is important to still be aware of the impact epiphytes have on the environment and how disruption can impact the entire ecosystem (Rapps). Sources: Rapp JM and Silman MR. Epiphyte response to drought and experimental warming in an Andean cloud forest [version 2; peer review: 2 approved]. F1000Research 2014, 3:7 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.3-7.v2) Petruzzello, Melissa. "epiphyte". Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 Mar. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/plant/epiphyte. Accessed 30 October 2022.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 22, 2022 Amidst continuing environmental challenges and efforts in our ever growing society, paving the way for future generations is crucial. And according to Audley and Stein, properly nurturing children's understanding and relationship with nature is key. Today, their article “Creating an Environmental Resiliency Framework: Changing Children’s Personal and Cultural Narratives to Build Environmental Resiliency” will be reviewed and key points will be selected to dive into what is most important in guiding younger generations to better care for the environment than those before them. Right off the bat, the importance of narrative of the environment being incorporated into cultures is emphasized; this includes myths, legends, and stories. “To create resilient and balanced life ways, we need to change the stories we tell to bring them in line with a more sustainable future” (Audley, 2). The efficacy of simple storytelling and normalized narratives is shown in an example provided: “The idea that life in the USA is materially better than life elsewhere, and that individuals can become wealthy through their own actions continue to be powerful narratives drawing immigrants from around the world” (Audley, 3). While this narrational aspect is significant to children’s understanding of environmental ethics, they must also see a shared interest in those they look up to. “For children to build a resilient approach to looming issues such as climate change, they must sense that the adults in their lives are engaged in activism on their behalf” (Audlry, 4). Additionally, Audley and Stein emphasize the need for spending time outdoors in nature and having meaningful conversations, even when negative events occur; “Persons with an ecological sense of self are more likely to behave in a manner that is consistent with their beliefs, including spending more time outdoors and behaving in ways that are congruent with environmental concerns (Audley, 6). In their conclusion, they provide directions including fostering a reserved time for proper discussion and proposing schoolwide environmental frameworks to assimilate environmental concerns into daily discussions. In terms of future policy and methods to bring abstract concepts to life, Rolston suggests “Both policy and ethics will be required… if environmental ethics can persuade large numbers of persons that an environment with biodiversity, with wilderness is a better world in which to live than one without these… that will get us clean air, water, soil conservation, national parks, some wildlife reserves and bird sanctuaries” (Rolston, 13). Environmental policies and moving forward with enforced regulations can be very sensitive to an idea; in past discussions with professors, I have heard suggestions as simple as placing a price on carbon emissions. While it is such a simple idea, the specific rules and requirements would need defining. Even in the closest city where I live, there were disagreements over how rain should be taxed (property size, the quantity of contribution, etc.). However, with meaningful discussion and efforts from today’s generations, I believe a better environmental ethic can be embraced by younger generations. Sources: Audley, Shannon R, and Ninian R Stein. “Creating an Environmental Resiliency Framework: Changing Children's Personal and Cultural Narratives to Build Environmental Resiliency, Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences.” DeepDyve, Springer US, 4 Mar. 2016, https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/springer-journal/creating-an-environmental-resiliency-framework-changing-children-s-bNYv5NGWSz. Rolston, Holmes. “The Future of Environmental Ethics* - Mountain Scholar.” Mountain Scholar, 2011, https://mountainscholar.org/bitstream/handle/10217/70417/Future-Env-Ethics-Royal-Inst-Phil.pdf.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 15, 2022 One of my personal interests in environmental history are the ice ages, which began approximately 2.4 million years ago and lasted up until 11,500 years ago; essentially, they were time periods in which the climate constantly shifted back and forth between colder and warmer periods (When Were the Ices Ages and Why Are They Called That?). “Along with solar radiation levels, it is believed that global warming and cooling is connected to plate tectonic activity. The shifting of the Earth’s plates creates large-scale changes to continental masses, which impacts ocean and atmospheric currents, and triggers volcanic activity that releases carbon dioxide into the air” (History.com Editors). These ideas are consistent even with contemporary climate change such as the greenhouse effect. The ramifications are significant to earth’s geography, biodiversity, and overall function considering “large-scale glaciation may last several million years and drastically reshape surface features of entire continents'' (Britannica). Some of the most distinguishing remnants of these glacial periods are glacial sediments and erosion, which “... sculpted deep alpine valleys…” (Belknap). As temperatures change, organisms and biotic life are forced to adapt or go extinct. Additionally, ice melt can cause rise in global sea levels, ecological mismatch, shrubification, continue on positive albedo feedback loops, and more (which can be found in previous posts on the Arctic Ice series). Loss of species from the ice age can be credited to the change in food available, human hunting, or even extraterrestrial impact (Ice Age Extinction: The New York State Museum). The change in resources, migration, and the consequential change in energy transfer across the food chain can cause a series of ramifications, resulting in the extinction of species. For example, research has shown that mammoths most likely went extinct due to lack of vegetation available (Davla). All in all, historical ice ages heavily impacted earth’s climate, biodiversity, sea levels, landscapes, earth currents, and inevitably humans. Though not as dramatic, information collected from research on these time periods can be applicable to today’s climate issue and may assist in finding solutions. Sources: “When Were the Ices Ages and Why Are They Called That?” When Were the Ices Ages and Why Are They Called That? - Mammoth Discovery, Children's Discovery Museum of San Jose, https://www.cdm.org/mammothdiscovery/wheniceages.html#:~:text=The%20Ice%20Ages%20began%202.4,many%20of%20the%20glaciers%20melted. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "ice age". Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 Sep. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/ice-age-geology. Accessed 15 October 2022. Belknap, Daniel F.. "Quaternary". Encyclopedia Britannica, 24 Aug. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/Quaternary. Accessed 15 October 2022. History.com Editors. “Ice Age.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 11 Mar. 2015, https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/ice-age#section_1. “Ice Age Extinction: The New York State Museum.” Ice Age Extinction | The New York State Museum, http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/exhibitions/online/ice-ages/ice-age-extinction. Davla, Sejal. “Finding the Cause of Mammoth Extinction.” The Scientist Magazine®, 7 Sept. 2022, https://www.the-scientist.com/sponsored-article/finding-the-cause-of-mammoth-extinction-70463#:~:text=Environmental%20DNA%20and%20climate%20change,herbivore%20species%2C%20including%20Arctic%20mammoths.

October 8, 2022 Written by: Caroline Kim Earth’s functions as a very complex unit, but there are five fundamental biogeochemical cycles that allow our planet to contain life. A biogeochemical cycle is the movement of a particular chemical through the biologica, geological, or living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem (Science Safari). Of these five are: the hydrologic, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous cycle. Starting off with the most popular cycle: the hydrologic cycle, better known as the water cycle. In this cycle, condensation occurs in which water vapor turns into liquid, forming a cloud; after this, precipitation occurs in which it rains and water ends up in a body of water or runs off. Percolation may also occur in which water soaks into the ground and soil. Following this event, water changes form into water vapor (evaporation) or transpires when water evaporates from a leaf. From here, the cycle repeats, allowing for photosynthesis to occur and allowing water to be used as a source for all organisms on earth (Science Safari). Next up is the oxygen cycle, in which plants can release up to 470 billion tons of oxygen during photosynthesis. This oxygen is stored in the ozone layer of the atmosphere as O3, earth’s crust, oceans, and is used by animals and humans for respiration. In the earth’s atmosphere, it acts as a buffer against ultraviolet rays and is key for survival (more can be found on the earth’s atmosphere post). Oxygen is also a necessary component of decomposition such as oxidation: the process by which metal rusts (Science Safari). The carbon cycle is one that is relevant in environmental studies, as it contributes to the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is take up by plants during the process of photosynthesis, but also released by humans and animals during respiration. The ocean is key in this cycle, as it dissolves CO2 easily and helps regulate the cycle. The part where carbon becomes a concern is when huge quantities are stored in decayed animals and plants, which are then burned as fossil fuels such as coal, oils, and natural gas. Too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can induce global warming, climate change, and ecological disaster (Science Safari). Our atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen gas and naturally plays a key role. Because this nitrogen in the atmosphere can not be directly utilized, a process known as nitrogen fixation occurs to make it more accessible. Nitrogen can be found in animal waste and is often used by higher organisms to make proteins. In addition, the nitrogen in the soil is denitrified by bacteria, so that it can be used again by plants. It is a resource for animals, plants, and cycles through our soil and atmosphere to support life on earth (Science Safari). Last but not least is the only cycle without a gaseous phase: the phosphorus cycle. Most of the phosphorus on earth can be found in rocks and minerals and is essential for chemicals such as DNA. Phosphorus often cycles from soils and plants, to animals, then is returned to nature as waste. Phosphorus can be washed into basins or produced from man-made pollution, and can cause dangerous levels of plant overgrowth when too plentiful. In other words, too many phosphorus rich fertilizers can result in agricultural runoff known as eutrophication (Science Safari). Sources: Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "biogeochemical cycle". Encyclopedia Britannica, 6 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeochemical-cycle. Accessed 8 October 2022. Britannica, “Nitrogen Fixation.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/nitrogen-fixation/images-videos#/media/1/416291/7 Science Safari Foldable